Latest move post production is totally based on Digital based technologies. Digital era evolve the SLR camera to DSLR. Yet moves are recorded in analog celluloid films. Due to that there were lots of technical difficulties faced in post production face. Top of all there were no replacement to Celluloid film with digital recording technologies due to their low resolution video frames. However, in that past few years digital cinema cameras are been introduce which give us hope of total digital cinema production.

Existing Technology

Existing technology used to record a movie is Celluloid film. It is very similar to the film that we used in SLR cameras before DSLR camera comes. It’s like taking 24 still pictures in SLR camera and plays them as a film. In Cine camera celluloid film is running inside it, and there is a lens system to focus light in to that. The speed of running on celluloid film decided the frame rate of the video. The frames in the video get burnt in to celluloid film and then it need to be developed chemically. If the director needs some special color correction that need to be done chemically.

In editing, it will be linear editing. In very early stage, editors used to cut off the part of film and re-join them to get the edited movie. Later there were special editing stations to do non linear editing for celluloid films. In the case they need a 3D object in the film. They have to transfer the frame in to new celluloid film with the 3D object in it. Later mixing stations were capable of work with a computer and control entire procedure through that. This made the life easier when producing virtual reality moves using computer technologies.

In the early stage of cinema, they were using a very basic version of celluloid film. So moves were in black and white. Later the chemical that were using in the f celluloid film were improved gradually, so movies go better colors. Today they are capable of capturing the color in front of the camera as it is. With the improvement of the less kit and cinema rigs, in collaboration of all directors could come up with exceptional moves that we see today in theaters.

Advantages

The reason why movie producers are still using this technology is, it the only option to display and movie in large cinema screen. Celluloid films are having unlimited number of pixels theoretically. If you have good optics, you can expand the frame in to any larger screen. In theater this celluloid film fill will be developed as a “positive” which contain video frames in transparent film and it will be run in the given speed in projector with the aid of optical system to zoom it in to standard cine screen. And latest celluloid films are capable of capturing very accurate colors. Due to that some video producers are using celluloid film even to record videos prepared for television broadcasting.

Disadvantages

No matter how quality is the video celluloid films are having lots of problems. Most of the problems are there in SLR cameras and here it’s even worse. Mainly the cost, cost for celluloid film and cost of complex cameras are way higher to afford. Due to that to produce a cinema there is a huge cost barrier. And the cameras are huge and very less portable. If something goes wrong, you have no way to delete it. All the frames that captured are irreversibly burnt in to celluloid film. In such a case you have to throw the film away. In the post production phase you need very complex instruments to get the editing done. If you need to include partial virtual reality world in your movie its even difficult and take very longer time to finalize or render.

How about 1080p HD videos?

Now you must be wondering, “Why can’t we use full HD videos in Theaters?”. Yes 1080p HD videos are very common today with Blu-ray disks and people are watching them in big Plasma screens or projectors. 1080p videos are having the frame size of 1920 x 1080 which is very big for most of the home theater system we use. But when you take the same video in to theater the video resolution is way not enough. It will be blurred in the screen and you will realize that video need more details means more resolution. But do we have such cameras to capture such videos. Never seen in general production environments, but they are out there.

Digital Cinema Standards

The cinema industry was so badly demanding a digital cinema camera for years. Therefore various different standards were introduced to develop such a camera by various people. When it comes to HD video there were standards like 720p, 1080i and 1080p. Same sort of standards for screen resolution were introduced to digital cinema as well. So camera manufactures will have to comply with them.

2K Videos

It’s having 2048×1080 resolution video frames. Normally used in 24 fps yet you can choose to use in 48 fps as well, if you are using background tracking. This is a good resolution to display in cine screen, yet most of the people are still reluctant with the detail level.

4K Videos

It’s having 4096×2160 resolution in video frame and very good detail level to display in digital theaters. Frame rate is same as 2K. Most probably this will be the standard for future digital cinema.

8K Videos

It’s having 8192 × 4320 resolution in video frames. They could be use to video capturing to get the maximum amount of details for post production. Yet final product will be redder as 4K.

Advantages of Digital Cinema

Digital cinema solved many problems which were there in celluloid film technology. The main factor is cost. Initial investment could be higher for equipments yet cost for video shoot will be much lesser as long as they will be stored in reusable digital storage. Cameras will be less complex and smaller equipments with much portability. In the case something goes wrong you can easily delete it and re shoot it. In post production the editor can use all the non liner editing techniques to come up with exceptional video. Most of the latest movies are having virtual reality technologies included and those will be much easier why video also in digital format. Further, if you need to do a advanced color correction it also will be much easier and less costly.

Digital Cinema Cameras

Red Camera

The most discussed digital cinema camera is Red camera. There is a range of cameras with different capabilities. The very first one camera they released is Red One. This camera attracted massive public attention which was capable of recording 2K videos. Lots of people were inspired and started doing research on possibilities of digital cinema. Lots of theaters were looking forward to upgrade their conventional projector to digital projector.

In 2011 they released the camera Epic which is again capable of capturing video in 4K format and 5K format as well. The camera comes as different version like brain only (only the processor), Epic-M Pack and total package. This is excellent choice for any kind of commercial digital cinematography.

In late 2011 they are planning to release another camera good for small scale digital cinematography named Scarlet. It comes with an affordable and good set of features as well. Most attractive thing in there is some version of Scarlet support Canon lenses. This will be a good news for the people who already doing digital cinematography using Canon DSLRs.

There are lots of Movies, commercial and music videos done using red cameras. Below video shows some of those.

Canon EOS C300

With the start of digital cinema era Canon also decided to come in to the market with a camera called EOS C300 which is capable of 4K video capturing. There were lots of cinematographers who are using Canon DSLR cameras for their production. This will be good upgrade for them since they can use their existing lens kits. And I believe this will be a good competition to Red camera as well.

Future

SLR to DSLR

Sometimes ago most of the professional photographers were using analog SLR cameras for their photography. Once the Digital SLR camera comes and they improve up to Full frame camera most of the professionals started using DSLRs for they work. Today it’s very rare to find a professional photographer still using a SLR. It’s true that there is a data loss when we convert the continuous data stream like light in to discreet data system like Digital. But most of the cases human eye is not capable if identifying it with the latest digital advancement. And considering many other factors like ease of use, cost, fatly tolerance and digital post processing professional have been shifted to DSLRs.

Digital Cinema Possibilities

In cinema industry large part of the movies are still producing with celluloid film because digital technology was not developed to not to make feel difference to human eye. But with this advancement of digital cinema cameras and their 2K and 4K video formats, future movie producers will start using digital cine cameras more. Even now most of the forthcoming massive movie productions are doing using digital cameras, especially Red Camera Epic.

Post production

Importantly there won’t be much effort to improve the post production environment since they are up to standard already. All they need is very powerful computer to handle high resolution videos and relevant software. If talk about software they are more than advanced today to get any classy work done. Most of the productions housed are using clusters of computer to get more processing power for editing and rendering. If it’s still not enough they can easily get a online cloud cluster or rendering farm.

Digital Theaters

At the same time theaters also need to be equipped with the latest digital projectors. Their initial cost of way bigger than previous film projectors, yet with that investment they will be able to deliver amazing movie experience to the audience.

However with the trend of mobile smart phones and table PCs, lots of competitors came in to market including Apple, Samsung and HP. They came up with competitive products especially in smart phones. The mobile phone giant was not doing so well in this trend though it was taking the lead in many of previous mobile devices trends. Therefore its popularity was falling. Recently they have taken some steps to be back on the track with other competitors and they attracted the public interest back to Nokia.

Company History

Early time

The mother country of the Nokia cooperation is Finland and then it expanded to hundreds of countries with manufacturing network. It was originally founded back in 1865 and by that time they were producing paper under the Russian empire. With the improvement of telecommunication Nokia produces its very first electronic device which was for nuclear plants back in 1962. In 1970s Nokia was more focused on developing telecommunication devices including telephone switches and many other highly sophisticated telecommunication equipments. Mainly they were involved in improving communication security by applying encrypted protocols to communication mediums.

Mobile Telecommunication Industry

In the early stage of mobile telephones which was 0G Nokia was developing mobile communication devices for military purposes. With the 1^st generation mobile communication technology Nokia released Mobira Senator which could be considered as Nokia’s very first commercial mobile phone. In that time mobile phone was not really mobile, it was a considerable huge device. So Nokia was in a mission to make it smaller and make it actually a mobile phone. And they were taking the lead in 2^nd generation and 3^rd generation mobile trends with their amazing technology.

Mobile Phone was not the only manufacturing in Nokia. Other than mobile phones there were producing various different mobile devices including notebook PCs, communicators which is an original concept of Nokia itself.

Company Growth

Most of the time Nokia was doing great and they were growing in financial side continuously. In history Nokia could acquire many other companies and expand their telecommunication empire. In 1990 Nokia Company was more focused on telecommunication industry and taking their focus away from non-telecommunication businesses. Down this path Nokia became the world’s largest mobile phone manufacturer in late 1990s. In early 2000s company was facing tight market competition and most of the time it could not take the lead as it used to do. Therefore financial status of the company was started to getting weaker and stock price was also falling.

Technology

Operating system

One of the most attractive features in Nokia mobile phone was its operation system.  The OS that used in early mobile phone was commonly known as Nokia OS. By that time mobile Phones were having black and white carbon display (monochrome).  Therefore the aesthetic application was limited. Yet, Nokia OS was doing a great job and stand out among entire other OS available in that time with its extra smooth user-friendly experience. They have extended same OS to the early versions of color display mobile phones and they worked just fine with them as well.

With the improvement of mobile devices Nokia started using the Symbian OS by Symbian LTD. Back in 2008 it was bought be Nokia itself.  Symbian OS was giving many options to its user to select the way it should appear in the phone display. the most popular one was windows desktop like icon based menu. It allowed the user to organize the icon in folders and feature the desired icon in the standby screen as well. Symbian OS powered Nokia mobile phones for long and it contributed to its popularity in a significant way.

Down the time the requirement of Mobile smart phones was getting complex and many competitors were addressing those with their new mobile operating systems. Therefore Nokia decided to move to new linux based operation system which is MeeGo. The later version of Nokia N series was powered by MeeGo OS. MeeGo is an open source OS and it gave the ultimate flexibility to latest Nokia mobile devices. However according to my personal point of view it could not give the competitive edge for Nokia to stand out in Smart phone market.

Recently Nokia has released mobile smart phone with Windows Mobile OS which is one the latest and the most versatile mobile OS. This is one of the significant steps taken by Nokia to stand out in Smart phone market. The latest Nokia Lumia 800 is powered with windows mobile OS 7 and it was launched in 2011 October. Nokia has invested huge amount of money and effort in this device and having high hope about its success.

Online Service

Nokia is providing various different online services to its customers. The most significant one is Nokia Ovi dashboard which is an online portal to many other services. The main services that offered in here were N-Gage mobile gaming service and Ovi Maps for Nokia devices with GPS. The Ovi map is an amazing product that converts your mobile start phone in to high end navigation system. It getting updated frequently and cover all major continents with turn to turn voice guidance. Additionally Nokia online service provides and online backup system for customers where they can save their important information and could be transfer to any other Nokia mobile phone instantly. There is an email service provided by Nokia as well.

Multimedia Capturing

In the early stage of mobile phone which can capture still images Nokia was the leader and they provided state of art capturing devices embedded with the mobile phones. Sometimes ago I used a Nokia 7650 which came with 0.3 megapixel camera, yet produced good quality still images with its software enhancements. Today it has developed to 12 megapixel embedded cameras with sophisticated Carl Zeiss optics which allow the users to capture professional quality still images and video with their mobile phone.

Device Milestone

• Mobira Senator: Nokia’s first mobile phone released back in 1982, 1G brick type with monochrome display.
• Nokia 100: Very First original series phone released back in 1987, 1G candy bar type with monochrome display.
• Nokia 1011: Nokia’s very first GSM phone released back in 1992, Candy bar type phone with monochrome display.
• Nokia 1600: Color display phone with 96px display, GSM phone with candy bar design.
• Nokia 6600: came with a 0.3 mega pixel camera.
• Nokia 7650: Slide type phone came with 0.3 mega pixel camera.
• Nokia 9000 Communicator: Released in 1996 with Clamshell design.
• Nokia E72: Came with 5 mega pixel camera back in 2009
• Nokia N70: First release in N series in 2005
• Nokia N85: Two way slide phone customized for music came with 5 mega pixel camera and in built GPS
• Nokia N8: Touch screen phone came with 12 mega pixel camera which can capture 720p HD video
• Nokia Lumia 800: Latest release in 2011 powered by Windows Mobile OS 7.

Market Competition

Apple iPhone

Apple was one of the most evident threats to the Nokia Empire and it was able to take away large part of Nokia users already with their product Apple iPhone which is one of the most popular consumer electronic devices in this millennium. They have their state of art touch screen powered hardware system and one of the most aesthetic looking operation systems which is apple iOS. At this moment iPhone could be identified as the world’s most popular smart phone and they have build a new empire in mobile phone market within a short period of time like Nokia used to have for decades.

HTC

HTC is one of the oldest mobile phone manufacturers and gave birth to, many smart phones long time ago. Recently they have released attractive series of mobile smart phones with latest OS Android and Windows Mobile OS 7 which Nokia also using for their latest devices. According to the latest statistics HTC phones are reaching its maximum popularity as represented by sales and almost hitting iPhone and surpassing it if you consider entire series of HTC phones becoming a good competitor to Nokia Empire and newly built Apple Smartphone Empire too.

Samsung

A south Koran company which produces many consumer electronic products came in to mobile smart phone competition, more than a competition is a war.  They have recently come up with series of touch display smart phones with attractive OS like Android and its customized version. Additionally they are equipped with latest stills and video capturing devices which capable of recording even 720p HD video. Of course they are giving good competition to entire mobile smart phone manufactures including Nokia.

Future Plans

Windows Mobile OS 7

The immediate next plan of Nokia is it seems manufacture amazing devices in collaboration with Microsoft with their Windows Mobile OS 7. Nokia Lumia 800 is the latest attraction in this stream. Additionally they have investing huge effort in design aesthetic smart phone design like they always used to do with their entire series of phone. Even if you go back in to 1990s Nokia phones were always smart looking and it was always prestigious to use one. They are going to take the same advantage back again with innovative designs. They have recently officially released a video documentary about the design of Nokia Lumia 800.

Hardware Improvements

The next feature they will probably be focused on is the hardware especially Touch sensitive screen, accelerometer, altimeter and GPS device. The main attraction in iPhone was its highly accurate touch screen and according to my experience no one could come up with that accurate touch screen so far which made the iPhone Empire untouched. Currently HTC and Samsung have come up with excellent touch-screens so Nokia also have done and nice job with Lumia 800, yet they need to come up with more WOW stuff to stand out in the market.

Nokia already having amazing GPS based navigation system which is Ovi Maps and never seen anyone else provides something similar. They can improve the hardware capabilities in GPS units in side forthcoming Smart phones and at the same time improve Ovi maps with more up to date details and features including 3D views and real Street views.

Concept Smart Phones

Nokia has published many smart phone concepts in their official web site including The Morph Concept which is smart phone comes as a hand band and ear piece. It will be flexible and can shape in to a normal phone as well.

Additionally Nokia has conceptualized mobile device to monitor the environment conditions, personal health conditions and weather conditions. This could be innovative concepts which may reshape the human civilization and its continuation.

Energy Transformation and Usage

The way that it uses energy is the main success factor in Hybrid Electric Vehicles. It goes in as few steps which mentioned below.

• Start: it take the first move with electric motor. Only when vehicle started moving it ignites the fossil fuel engine. This saves lots of fossil fuel in many ways. Primarily, it saves fuel required to initial acceleration. Then it start ignition while engines components are moving and that will save lots of startup energy required, again saves fuel.

• Accelerate: When the vehicle is moving at a normal speed, it starts giving more fuel power. This will result it smooth initial acceleration which will add extra color to vehicle other than fuel consumption.  When the vehicle required more power and need more acceleration transmission will gradually give more weight to fuel engine automatically.

• High Speeds: When the vehicle is moving in a good speed, may be in a motorway, the transmission lean more toward fuel engine. In such a situation, very less amount of fuel needs to be burned to keep the speed. Further, most of the hybrid vehicles are designed very carefully to gain maximum advantage from aerodynamics.

• Braking: Generally braking will transform kinetic energy to thermal energy and potential energy in front suspension. In other words it takes the entire power off the vehicles to stop it. But, hybrid vehicles are having a generator. Whenever vehicle breaks, it comes to picture and transforms kinetic energy back to electrical energy, then store in batteries. That’s how most of the hybrid vehicles do great millage in city stop-n-go type driving conditions.

• Stopping: When you ready to stop the vehicles and once you reach a certain lower speed, it completely shut down fuel engine. Again it stops while it’s moving and it saves significant amount of fuel which might come out from exhaust, might be half burnt.  Other than fuel saving, it will give a smooth stop and parking again adds color to vehicle and delivers excellent comfortable driving experience.

Advantages

Drive Green

The main attraction in hybrid vehicles is their lesser environmental impact. They emit carbon approximately 40% lower than a traditional internal combustion engine which is really great. And we are dealing with millions of motor cars, so even a smaller change will be reflected big in the long run. However, the contribution from the Hybrid Electric vehicles is huge and significant. When there is increased number of them on the roads, we will feel the difference very clearly. Additionally, they generate much lesser noise than traditional internal combustion engine and that also could be considered as major contribution to ‘Live green’ concept. In near future our roads will be much lesser nosier than they are now, thanks to Hybrid electric vehicles.

Lesser Fuel Consumption

Then comes, the next major factor which is fuel consumption level. No matter how environmentalist try to make people see, what we are doing to environment and how it will back fire on us, There are very few people who understand that and try to contribute to make a change. But, we have limited fossil fuel supply. At this rate it won’t even last for, no more than 100 years. That will hit every one, affect every one unlike the environmental impact, it’s clearly accountable, in numbers. Hybrid vehicles will be our savior in there as well. As long as they consume fuel almost half of general internal combustion engine, we will have fossil fuel for significant number of more years which is cool. After all it will be good for your pocket as well!

Smooth Driving Experience

Hybrid vehicles give more, but take less. It’s not just about carbon emission, live green etc. It will give you better comfortable driving experience as well. Unlike in traditional internal combustion engines, these are not totally based on pistons. Most of the situations, they will be powered by motor as well as Fuel. So obviously, engine vibration will be lesser. If you drive only with motor, when you just start the car and going to park, there will be almost no noise or vibrations. Other than that most of the latest hybrid cars are good with aerodynamics, so it will add extra comfort to high speed drives.

Market Statistics

Toyota Prius with a Power Split hybrid engine is the top selling hybrid Electric car in US and Japan. It reached global 2 million sales by 2010. The second most selling hybrid car is Honda Civic powered with parallel hybrid engine. They hit 300,000 units’ sales in 2010. Ford also in the picture and they have done around 150, 000 units by 2010. As you can see, Toyota is leading the game and way ahead from all the others.

When it comes to countries Japan is the country that uses most number of Hybrid vehicles by 2010. Almost half of the worlds’ hybrid cars are in Japan. Then comes USA and they have approximately 40% of world Hybrid cars.

Recently most of the countries reduce or totally remove import taxes for Hybrid vehicles having the objective of motivate people to buy them to protect environment as well as save fossil fuel. This huge demand made a direct impact to car auction in Japan mainly. The car prices went up rapidly by nearly 50% in last 6 months. This trend is more likely to continue for some time. At the same time manufactures are continuously introducing new models with latest technological advancements.

Future Development

Future of hybrid cars is very important, to entire human civilization. It saves the main source of power which was using for centuries to empower most of our technological advancements. Most probably, human technology will be focused on sustainable energy in future. As a sign, latest Hybrid cars are having solar panel to recharge the batteries.

In Hybrid Electric vehicle development, scientists are trying different types of fuels. BMW has already proved that diesel is better than gasolier in hybrid engines. So Diesel hybrid could be a next big trend. Other than that people are looking in to cleaner energy like Hydrogen. In that case it could be used to generate electricity using Hydrogen fuel cell as well as in an internal combustion engine.  Once technology develops to generate Hydrogen with lesser cost, we will be able to say good bye to ‘Fossil fuel’ with these advancement of Hybrid vehicles.

Major environmental impact which led world weather condition to this state is ‘Carbon Emission’ Most of the developed countries emit scary amount of carbon per year, with their industrial machinery. Not just that, entire countries emit massive amount of carbon every day as a result of transportation based of fossil fuel. There were lots of global concepts came to picture to minimize these environmental impact, like ‘carbon trading’ but none succeeded since there were lesser support from world’s biggest carbon emitting countries.

Even though we don’t mind emitting carbon, fossil fuel are very limited and the regeneration process will take centuries. At the current state we are burning them in a rate which might be many 1000s times greater than their regeneration. So we are in a mission to save fossil fuel as well as the environment.

Hybrid car technology is an angel came to save the world environment and entire human civilization by minimizing carbon emission in transpiration mechanisms. The name hybrid came since those engines are using two types of energy sources. They were using in industry machinery, Ari crafts, naval vehicles, heavy transportation vehicles as well as domestic vehicles. The Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV) became popular with domestic vehicles and became an exponential trend in past few years.

Bit of History

The concept of hybrid vehicle was there in the academic world for so long. But, proposed mechanisms were too complex to implement and no good enough for domestic usage. When it comes to Hybrid Electric Vehicles, the major concern was its battery. It was too costly to replace and most of the cases not capable of holding enough power for decent long distance drive.

Technology continues to evolve for decades and as a result Japan produced world’s very first Hybrid Electric vehicle which was Toyota Prius back in 1997. Then Honda also came to the competition with their Civic in 1999. Those vehicles were having great fuel consumption as good as 50 MPG even in that time. However, there were performance issues as well as major issues with batteries.

Lots of vehicle manufactures came in to the competition, yet Toyota and Honda was the leading top sellers all the time. There was very advanced technologies introduced by Audi, BMW and Mercedes-Benz, but they didn’t go much in to pubic manly due to their high cost. Most of the above mentioned issues were resolved and in 2004 there was 200, 000 Hybrid car sales in USA and in 2010 it went up to 1, 800, 000 displaying its great success.

Types of Hybrid Engines

Parallel Hybrid Engines

In these engines both the internal combustion engine and Electric motor is connected to transmission. Vehicle may be using internal combustion engine or power of electric power to depending on driving condition. Sometimes it might use the both. It uses regenerative braking to transform kinetic energy back to electric energy. Further they are capable of generate power from internal combustion engine and store them in batteries. Most of the case those vehicles are having smaller motor and batteries since they are not suppose to drive only with motor. They perform good in highways as well as city drives in traffic.

Series Hybrid Engine

They uses internal combustion engine only to generate power and store them in a battery. The drive will be only powered by batteries and deliver maximum comfortable smooth drive. They have smaller internal combustion engine and bigger battery and motor, you can guess why. They also support regenerative braking, so do well in city driving in traffic. However, they come with greater market price due to their bigger motor and battery.

Power Split Hybrid Engine

This is the most popular and most balanced type of hybrid engine. The magic is they can drive with motor and internal combustion engine, either, both or proportionality like in parallel hybrid. Yet, they can generate power from internal combustion engine and drive with only motor as well, like Series hybrid. Hence, they can select the most efficient mechanism depending on driving conditions. As an example, they can switch to parallel mode in high speeds since they are good with high speeds. And they can go to series mode, in low speed as well. Plus, they have regenerative breaks like in other models.

Obviously, this must be having average, size internal combustion engine as well as a battery and motor. They come with average price, higher than pure parallel engines, yet much lower than pure series engines. The top selling Hybrid car in the world, which is Toyota Prius is powered with a power split Hybrid engine, and now you can see why it became the top selling car.

Engine Components

Internal Combustion Engine

This is traditional type of internal combustion engine which transforms fossil fuel in to kinetic energy using pistons. They empowered our autos for century and still there in hybrid engines as well. However, in this application they will be using in very optimum way, burning minimum amount of fossil fuel. They are used to generate electric power and drive in high speed.

Electric Motor

Electric motor power mainly in low speed drives and yet supports the internal combustion engine in acceleration in high speed drives. It converts electric energy in batteries to kinetic energy, then transfer them to vehicle through its transmission. Some of the Hybrid cars provide a ‘Zero Emission Mode’ which driver can select only the electric motor to power up the drive. This might be useful to drive your car in to ‘No Carbon Emission Zones’.

Generator

This is one of the magical concepts in hybrid engines. Generally, when braking, the kinetic energy in vehicle will be taken out as thermal energy and potential energy in suspension. But, hybrid engines can’t just waste energy like that. It uses this generator to convert the kinetic energy back to electric energy when braking and store them back on batteries. This called as ‘Regenerative Braking’.

Fuel Tank and Batteries

As usual, same as in traditional cars fuel tank will provide required fuel type to internal combustion engine. The battery pack will be there to power up electric motor whenever it required. Additionally, internal combustion engine may be recharging batteries. Plus, regenerative braking also will be re charging batteries when the vehicle brakes.

Transmission

The transmission has to be very special and somewhat complex since it has to handle two source of power. Basically it uses general transmission mechanism with clutch and all. Yet, it will be using variable transmission ratio to make it more efficient and cope up with different driving conditions, by selecting optimum source of energy for the situation. However, in the Parallel and series hybrid vehicles, transmission will be much similar to traditional transmission, yet in Power split hybrid must have much more complex mechanism, in order to select the optimum power source as well as power ratio.

Solar Panels

This is anotehr magical concepts in Hybrid Electric vehicles. Most of the time vehicle will be driving and parking in broad day light and why not convert it in to electric energy and store in batteries. In order to do that some special version of HEVs are having Solar panels, mostly in sun roof and rear windscreen. They are suppose to pump more electric power to batteries which will definitely lead to less carbon fuel burning,

Continue to Part 2…

Energy Transformation in Braking

The common misunderstanding in braking is that the kinetic energy in the vehicle will be transformed in to thermal energy due to the friction in brake pads and the drum. It’s true that part of the kinetic energy will be transformed in to heat, but a large part of it will be transformed in to potential energy in front suspension. You definitely must have noticed that, the front suspension system gets compressed and vehicle leans forward whenever you apply breaks. That’s the actual transformation of Kinetic energy in braking process.

Kinetic Energy –> Potential Energy in Front suspension and thermal energy

The above power transformation will depend on the friction between the road and the wheel. If it was lesser than the friction between brake pads and the drum, wheels get locked and vehicle starts to skid. This is the reason why vehicles skid in slippery roads. Further in the case, front suspension gets totally pressed and when it has no capacity to store any more potential energy, the same thing will happen.

Why Do We Need ABS?

When you apply breaks on a road, part of the kinetic energy will be transformed in to thermal energy as usual and part will transform in to potential energy in suspension depending on road friction. If the road is slippery or in other words having less friction, vehicle has a lesser chance of transforming kinetic energy in to potential energy. Hence there will be a greater chance of vehicle getting skidded. If the vehicle stars to skid, there is no way to control the nose direction using the steering wheel.

As a solution some of the experienced drivers pedal the break is such situations. I have seen some drivers using the same technique to stop the vehicle in a shorter distance, without losing control in slippery roads. What exactly happen there is once the vehicle starts skidding they release the break pedal, so that the front suspension gets a chance to release its potential energy. After that the driver applies the break again so the suspension can store potential energy again.

ABS is an electronic braking system which can perform the above mentioned task more accurately and efficiently. The main objective is to maintain the vehicle speed and wheel speed at the same level. If wheel speed is ’0′ and vehicle speed is more than that, it means the vehicle is skidding. The simple technique used in ABS is, once the wheel speed reaches ’0′ it releases the break to measure whether there’s any vehicle speed left yet. If that be the case, wheels will start again, and front suspension will get released from its potential energy. Then ABS automatically applies break and will continue the same procedure till the vehicle speed and wheel speed both become 0.

Advantages of ABS

The main advantage is you will be able to stop the vehicle in a shorter distance since it utilizing the energy transformation to the maximum level. And it won’t let the vehicle to skid understanding the road conditions. Therefore you can apply full break in any road condition without any hesitation. As long as wheels are not getting locked, driver can head the nose of the vehicle to desired location while applying full brakes. This will reduces the driving stress significantly since we don’t have to concern about the amount of break we apply in any road condition.

Evolution of ABS

In the early stage of ABS it had very few signals to control its behavior. It calculates the wheel speed and captures the vehicle speed by releasing breaks while wheel speed is 0 through the same speedometer. And it treats all 4 wheels the same way. This system worked fine in general road conditions yet there were identified problems. In the case of vehicle is driving down a hill, the vehicle speed will never be 0 while it release the break to capture it due the energy transformation from potential energy to kinetic energy. Hence there was no way to totally stop a vehicle which is driving down the hill by using break paddles. The problem were quickly solved using a simple logic that if wheel speed were less that certain level it will be locked by break till the driver releases the break paddle.

Additionally, if all four wheels are not in same road conations, this kind of break system yet result a skid. If two wheels are on snow and others on clean road, once the driver applies break it will turn the vehicle in an uncontrollable manner no matter it has ABS. Having the objective of solving this problem modern ABS systems collect data separately from all four wheels and apply ABS accordingly.

In traditional ABS systems collect the vehicle speed data from the same speedometer while uses to collect wheel speed data which is not always an accurate a mechanism. It always requires releasing the breaks and letting the wheels to spin to capture the relevant data. Modern ABS system are been designed to capture the vehicle speed using GPS data which could be identified as a proper mechanism, yet it could be less accurate. However, it doesn’t require releasing the break to capture vehicle speed.

Advanced Application

Security has become one the major concerns in modern vehicles. In order to provide maximum safety, braking plays an immense role. The main objective is to leave no chance to human errors on the road. Therefore Anti-lock braking systems will continue to evolve. The modern ABS algorithm and computers collect wide set of data to control the behavior of the ABS functionalities. In the early stages it was just wheel speed and vehicle speed. Modern ABS systems are equipped with many sensors in brake pedal, all four wheels and the accelerator as well. They could be designed to capture weather conditions as an input signal to the algorithm to make it even accurate. The Electronic stability control which could be identified as an extension of ABS, applies breakings separately to each wheel using advanced algorithm which helps the driver to keep the vehicle on the track at greater speeds and on sharp corners. Recently ABS systems are plugged in to motorcycles and result was more than 40% lesser accidents.  If your vehicle is also equipped with ABS and it’s well maintained, you don’t have to worry about skidding or controlling it when you apply breaks. All you have to do is just push the break paddle. ABS computer will do the hard part for you, and ensure maximums safety for your baby vehicle.

References

• www.caranddriver.com. (2010). Decade in Review: Technology – Gallery. Retrieved January 2011, from www.caranddriver.com: http://www.caranddriver.com/var/ezflow_site/storage/images/features/09q4/decade_in_review_technology-feature/gallery/electronic_stability_control_3a_mercedes-benz_electronic_stability_program_illustration_photo_27/3133644-1-eng-US/electronic_stability_con

Advantages of Using LINQ

There are four main advantages of LINQ. They are,

The availability of strong typed queries: The classes are auto generated according to the relations in relational databases. The language is very much easy to understand as in SQL.

The automatic join functioning in foreign keys: In normal SQL, the user has to join the tables if it is necessary. In LINQ, it provides the ability to join each function automatically when there is a foreign key reference.

The code size: There are many occasions that the users have to write long sentences for getting a SQL query. LINQ provides relatively short codes in such advanced occasions. It reduces the complexity of the code and makes it much easy for the program to read.

Code equality: One of the most advantages in using LINQ is that its availability over any .NET platform language such as C#.net, VB.NET and F#.NET.

LINQ to Objects and XML

The local query execution engine in LINQ can be used for the purpose of querying memory in collections. It allows IEnumerable collections to be queried locally while defining it in the sequence pattern. The currently available LINQ to Objects does not allow complex queries, but the simple and linear queries. The XML document is converted to the XElement objects through the LINQ to XML provider. The XElement objects are queried then against the local search engine.

LINQ to SQL

Both SQL Server Databases and SQL Server Compact Databases can use the LINQ to SQL provider. When the database is available in a remotely located SQL server, LINQ converts its queries to the SQL queries and then it is sent to the SQL server for the processing. LINQ is used as encapsulated data objects as the SQL server stores data as relational data. Those two should map each other with the support of LINQ to SQL mapping framework. There the classes being made according to the name of the database table. All or a part of the columns of the table are being taken as the data members. SQL defined attributes are used for the purpose of relating the other relational model attributes.

What LINQ Can Do More Than SQL?

Structured Query Language is designed for the purposes of querying data, updating, deleting or inserting from a database. What LINQ can do when compared to the SQL is very much. The users can call to several data sources not only a database, by using LINQ. It can take a single enumeration by calling to a database as well as a file system. Most important advantage of LINQ is the reduction of the code length. When executing a large query the length of SQL code is very much larger when comparing to the Method Based Query in LINQ.

LINQ to DataSet

The DataSets must be populated before using them. The way how data is loaded is not that important in this case. Two methods can be used for the purpose of loading data. The data can be retrieved directly from a database or the users can take the advantage of DLinq to query the database and then load the data that comes as the result into a DataSet. Either, you can use DataAdapter to querry data from the databases. Querying data is possible after loading them. There is an enumerate querried through the LINQ. The different between a normal enumeration and an enumeration that get from a LINQ query is that the LINQ querry gets an Enumeration of a DataRow object rather than getting a data set of a custom type. The DataSets can be devided into two main parts as typed and untyped. Typed DataSet declares the corresponding data type such as bool, int, date or etc.

TableAdapters are also can be used in case of querying. The TableAdapter is an adapter that is configured early and encapsulates the connection information, and the queries also predefined and exposed as methods that can be used for filling an already created table or creating a new table and working on it to fill.

There are number of custom operations can be made for the purpose of enabling LINQ queries over the DataSet.

Security Matters in LINQ

There are several matters both positive and negative that users have to concern when using LINQ. The security concerns vary from the reason and the place where the code is used.

LINQ to SQL

SQL injection attacks have been a very much popular threat than SQL always had with it. One of the recommended techniques that is said to use is that writing the code using parameters. LINQ is always used as parameter manner. That threat is reduced for certain extend.

LINQ to XML

Extensible Markup Language is used for the purpose of transporting data. So the security is very much concerned in this matter. According to the Microsoft releases it is not yet advised to use LINQ in places where security is concerned a lot. This application is not much for the server-side applications other than the programming convenience. If it is very much need to use LINQ to XML for such advanced scenarios, the only acceptable way is creating an instance of an xmlReader class that can filter out the XML DOS attacks.

When Not to Use LINQ

LINQ is a good implementation that could help lot of areas in a very convenient manner. In most of the LINQ make things much easy than the others. But using LINQ for small SQL queries might not be suitable at all. In addition when working with LINQ to XML, one of the major concerns should be avoiding the Denial of Service attacks.

References

• Bussman, T. (2009, 04 03). Why use Linq instead of SQL? Retrieved 06 16, 2010, from Entrance Software: http://www.entrancesoftware.com/blog/post/Why-use-Linq-instead-of-SQL.aspx
• Mirceat. (2008, 03 12). LINQ Framework Design Guidelines. Retrieved 06 16, 2010, from MSDN BLOGS: http://blogs.msdn.com/b/mirceat/archive/2008/03/13/linq-framework-design-guidelines.aspx

History

CSS1

CSS1 is the first edition of Cascading Style Sheets which were introduced in 1996. It came with the support for several properties. Introduction of unique ‘id’ for each property and introduction of classes to properties that should have the same styles attributes were the most important things there were.  Margin, border, padding and positioning also powered by style sheets although they could be done by using the HTML elements. Spacing between lines and rows of tables are also easily done using the stylesheets. The W3C stated the importance of using CSS instead of having the html as the giving the ability to optimization and making it easy for the designers to design and settle down the design easily.

CSS2

CSS2 was published in 1998. Positioning of index with several property values such like fixed, absolute, relative and indexing were the commonly highlighted ones among them. Bidirectional texts and some other new front properties such as shadows were introduced by this edition of CSS. Two updates and features came in to fix the errors in CSS 2. CSS 2.1 was the last 2^nd generation edition of CSS.

CSS3

CSS3 is the latest edition of the CSS Stylesheets. There are several new functionalities have been provided through CSS3. Functions such like opacity, Text-overflow, media queries and box shadows are some of the much attractive introductions.

What’s New In CSS3?

Rounded Corners

As there are much new features, the simplest and easily useable one is that the rounded corners. The previous CSS2 stylesheets did not allowed users to make this available in one step. They had to add four circular images for the four edges of the div and make the border rounder. The “-moz-border-radius” and “-webkit-border-radius” properties enable the users to be those borders round. Male the border image availability is another great introduction as it lets the user to add custom and decorated images for the borders.

Background Decoration

The background decoration is available with the possibility of customizing it. ‘background-origin’ and ‘background-clip’ gives a customized display for the content background. It has also enabled to have multiple backgrounds to the same content through the CSS3 styles. In addition, there is a new feature which is called background-image-size to resize the size of the background image of the divs.

Colors

There is a huge variety of colors available with the new CSS edition. HSL, HSLA and RGBA are the new color schemes. The new ‘A’ value stands for the opacity. With this value, the divs can make transparent and give a much attractive look to the appearance. In early editions, the transparency was obtained by adding a .png or .gif image as the background.

Text Effects

Most of the occasions when it is need to add customized text effects such like the shadow; the designers used graphics made using the Photoshop like software. With the latest edition of the CSS, it can be done without adding a weighted image to the content. The ‘text-shadow’ property comes with making them possible and providing a better image than the CSS. Text overflow control has made it easy to give good boundaries to the content while having the two values which are ‘ellipsis’ and ‘clip’. ‘Word wrap can be used to mark the boundaries of a particular text area while giving the options to mark the boundaries even by the number of letters or words.

Attribute Matching

Attribute matching made the styles available for some tags which are named with some starting part of a string. For example, the ids’ which are named as ‘sosa’ and ‘sopa’ can be easily applied with styles by making the tag name starting value as ‘so’. The outline property can be used to make an outline for the content. In earlydays, it was done by having two separate divs and applying the border to the outer one in which the width and height values greater than the inner one.

Box Model

Box model is a new property which was introduced with the CSS3 edition. With this, it can be easily assigned with customized div appearance. There should be two inner divs and a single outer div with the width of each inner div being 50%.

Web Fonts

A new collection of web fonts was introduced with the CSS3 edition. The multi column layout view also can be applied to the content as it can be used to provide multi column paragraphs. Media boxes are also a new implementation that could help to give a good view to the end user.

Suggestions For Future Development

One of the most expected further implementations are that the ‘Math’ functions of the CSS. It can be used in a vast area if it was introduced with mathematic functions. Aural Stysheets also expected to released but the W3C has not made a clear statement about that. There will be a set of properties for creating charts in the near future. Although CSS can be used now also to draw these charts, it is expected to be more convenient way in the near future. Image processing functions will be a good implementation to future. The page size could be removed from a large capacity. Though W3C has introduced universal standard for CSS, different browser engines have slight variation of interpretation. This can be identified as a major drawback of CSS standards. Due to this developer still have to think about using CSS in some special development scenarios. Furthermore in future releases CSS might contain advanced image processing techniques too. When thinking about far future CSS might be able to control HTML tags beyond 2D layout. Even at this moment there are some demonstration of 3D image gallery made using CSS3 with the aid of HTML5. They will be even improved most importantly to work on any browser platform.

References

• 7 Awesome CSS3 Techniques You Can Start Using Right Now. (n.d.). Retrieved 06 07, 2010, from Mashable: http://mashable.com/2010/06/04/awesome-css3-techniques/
• Cross-browser CSS3 border-radius (rounded corners). (2010, January). Retrieved June 2010, from dimox.net: http://dimox.net/wp-images/css-border-radius.jpg
• CSS3 Modules. (n.d.). Retrieved 06 08, 2010, from CSS: http://www.css3.info/modules/

Bitmap Graphics

A bit map is a map of bits. The bits are stored in well organized arrays where the array elements are called as pixels. Bitmaps are also named as the Raster Artworks. Possibility of making very smooth color gradations makes it easy to apply photographic or artistic effects. Graphic Interchange Format (.GIF), Joint Photographers Expert Group (.JPG, .JPEG), Tagged Image File Format (.TIFF, .TIF), Encapsulated Postscript (.EPS) are some of the famous Bitmap graphic file formats.

Graphic Interchange Format

It was introduced in 1987 and has become a very popular graphic file format since it supports a wider area of the worldwide web. This format can be used to create the animations as well. With available 256 different colors, it supports 8 bits per a pixel. Images with continuous colors will not be well viewed by this format.

Joint Photographers Expert Group

It is a widely used bitmap graphic format that uses lossy compression. The compression ratio is 10:1 and there is a little quality reduction also.

Tagged Image File Format

TIFF formats are very often used in Apple Macintosh computers. This format can use both lossy and lossless compression techniques. The TIFF format is the standard for document management systems and document imaging.

Encapsulated Postscript

EPS can be used as a postscript document that contains additional information about the file formats. In addition this can be used to have a preview on a document containing information.

Bitmap Graphic software

• Adobe Photoshop
• Corel Paint
• Paint Shop Pro

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Bitmap Graphics

The main advantage of a bitmap is that it can be accessed sooner through the internet when you have the proper size. The accuracy is very high when displaying image information including the shadings and the other complex and smooth places. Another advantage is that it can be used as a universal format. Most of the Bitmap graphics are not proprietary.

There are many disadvantages of using the bitmap images when it comes to professional level. The main disadvantage is that it cannot get the original quality when resizing. The best solution to overcome this is to cut the image in the size which it is needed to use.

Vector Graphics

Lines and curves are the basics of Vector Graphics. The Vectors are defined by the mathematical drawings and calculations. Illustrator (.AI), Encapsulated PostScript (.EPS), PostScript (.PS), Windows Meta File (.WMF) and Flash Movie (.FLA, .SWF) are some of very popular file formats.Vector images do not have the issue of reducing the quality when zoom the images. The mathematical functions that describe the images can resize the images without getting blurred.

Illustrator

Adobe Illustrator Artworks are proprietary file format of Adobe Systems. There is much software that supports Adobe Illustrator file formats. This AI formats supports both PDF and EPS formats.

Windows Meta File

It can be used in Microsoft Windows systems as a graphics file format. As WMF was a 16-bit file format, the new 32-bit Enhanced Meta File format was introduced to support the windows versions after Windows 3.0. Enhanced Metafile Plus extension and compressed formats such as Compressed Windows Meta File and Compressed Windows Enhanced Meta file formats were announced with the Windows XP released.

Flash Movie

This is also a format developed by Adobe Systems with the intention of making the video streaming available over the internet. The SWF format was released first in 2002, with the Flash player version 6. The latest formats of flash movies are much different compared to the previous versions. There are two main video formats named .f4v and .f4p and two audio formats named .f4a and .f4b.

Vector Graphic Software

• Abobe Illustrator
• Corel Draw
• Macromedia Freehand
• Macromedia Flash
• Resizing is better in vectors than the bitmaps
• Vector graphics usually require fewer amounts of data than the bitmaps.
• Vector graphics are easy to edit than the bitmap graphics.

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Using Vectors

There are some disadvantages over using the vector graphics. The images with complex curves are hard to reproduce. It can be harder to write the code for a particular image. The vector images come relatively slower. The other disadvantage is that the most of the vector formats are proprietary.

When To Use Vector And Bitmap

Vector will be the best option for images with text, many colored graphic objects. Due to its algorithmic functions, it will not be hard to give a quality image. Bitmaps are the best choice for complicated images with shadows and many shades, 3D effects, textures and photographs. The main thing is to consider when choosing a bitmap image is that to choose the same size that is need to be applied on the corresponding place.

Converting Two Types

Bitmaps to Vectors: The edges of the objects are located in a bitmap image and the resulting shapes are converted into vector objects.

Vectors to Bitmaps: There are two main issues when converting vectors to bitmaps. The first step is rasterization. Determining the color of each pixel can be not that perfect. Vectors being the mathematical functions of lines and curves cannot make a perfect contact with the each pixel of the image.

References

• (2009). Retrieved May 2010, from www.eznetu.com: http://www.eznetu.com/Graphics/graphic_types/images/bitmap-vector-diagram2.jpg
• Harris, A. (n.d.). Vector Graphics. Retrieved 05 31, 2010, from http://wally.cs.iupui.edu/n351/vector/Vector_Graphics.html

Color

It is the frequency of a light wave within the bandwidth located in the electromagnetic spectrum where human eye can catch it. The range of frequencies which are higher than the maximum of the above bandwidth is called as the ultraviolet region while the lower frequencies are in the infrared region. Every visible color in the spectrum is a combination of the three basic colors which are Red, Green and Blue.

Color Depth And Color Pallets

In general, a picture is a collection of pixels where each pixel has a unique color. The number of colors that a pixel can have is defined as the color depth. The color depth is equal to two to the power of number of bits that image have. For example an 8bit color image can have 256 colors to represent a one pixel and a 16bit color image can have 65536 colors to represent a single pixel. A color pallet is a mathematical table that defines the available color of a pixel. They are also called as the Color Look Up Tables. Most common pallets are of 1, 4,5,16 and 24 in bit depths.

Web safe colors are the colors that are being shared by the Windows and Mac operating system pallets. There is a combination of color codes ‘00’, ’33’, ‘66’, ‘99’, ‘CC’, ‘FF’ for each color in the web safe color palette. Each color is defined with three pairs of numbers.

Color Models

Color Model is the way to specify colors in the terms of computer. RGB, SGB, HSL, CMYK, CIE are some of them. It represents color in a mathematical system.

RGB is the most famous color model from all. It contains Red, Green and Blue which are the primary colors of light. The 24-bit RGB color system represents each color by providing 8-bits for each color. Therefore there are 256 shades of each red, green and blue color.

HSB is a combination of Hue, Saturation and Brightness. Every color has 3numbers from each representation. Hue is a value between 0 to 360 degrees. The next number saturation is a percentage value between 0 and 100. The last one is brightness that can have a value between 0 and 100. HSL is the replacement of lightness for the brightness in HSB. Lightness means the black color availability of the color.

HSI color model includes a parameter for the intensity. The distance unit percentage from the center of the HSI color pyramid is defined as the Saturation. Intensity defines the distance up axis from black which will be ‘0’ or ‘1’.

CMYK color model is a collection of Cyan Magenta Yellow and black and it is the color model used in printers as well. Cyan is the while light without red. Magenta is while light without green. Yellow is white light without blue. But this model is less applicable in multimedia production. They are the primary colors of pigments that are used to make the other colors in practical.

Analogous And Complementary Colors

Analogous Colors are defined as any close three colors on a 12 colored color wheel. The nature is the best example for a practical place where the Analogous combination can be found. There is lot of varieties of greens that are closer to each other in the jungles as well. They are very much pleasant to the eye because of the less change in it. Also it has less attraction in it due to the low color change n it. Split Analogous colors are the colors that are located once after a once in the color wheel.

Complementary Colors are any two colors that are located one against one. They are very hard to pick up on human eyes and it shows things highlighted. Places where to find quick attraction can be colored with complementary colors. Although these combinations are not that cool for eyes, it will not be a good implementation for the pictures that should keep the eye for a long time. Split-complementary color scheme are the ones that have one hue but located in each one’s opposition.

Color Theory Applications

There are so many applications of color theory can be found in the day today life. Graphic designing is the most famous one among them. Several artworks have become famous due to the proper application of the color theory. Color theories are highly applied for the advertising purposes. There are so many products that has become much famous and so many that has become less popular due to the color selections for the advertising. A company logo is the trademark of a company. It will be a key factor in the business purposes. Normally the Analogous color patterns are applied to the logo designs because of it provides the majesty of that company. Advertising is very much different from the logo designing and the complementary colors are applied to get more consumer attraction for the sales purposes. Video games are also applied the color theory with several intentions such like changing the player’s mind during the play, highlighting and hiding several operations for the player and so many other tricks that could attract the player to play the game. World Wide Web is another famous application of the color theory that gives dynamic content to the site visitors by using several techniques. Cascading Style Sheets are often used to provide the content to the user in a very much attractive manner. Interior designers concern very much on the color theory to match the suitable colors for the building according to the place.

Color theory is not that famous as most of the other theories used for any other works. But it is one of the rapidly used theories in the world and this can be applicable for most of purposes and activities.

References

• Color Models: HSB, RGB, CYMK and LAB. (n.d.). Retrieved 05 27, 2010, from WOWAREA: http://www.wowarea.com/english/help/color.htm

Lossless Compression Algorithms

There will be no data loss in this type of compression as it is defined by the name. Both original data and the compressed data are the same in this compression. The algorithms for the compression and decompression are exact inverse of each other in the Lossless Compression. The main mechanism in this compression is removing the redundant data in the compression and adding them in the decompression.

Advantages: The original format of the data remains even it is compressed.

Disadvantages: Reduction of the size of the data is a small. Sometimes the size can increase instead of decrease.

Run-length Encoding

Run-length encoding can be named as the simplest method of encoding. Any combination of symbols can be compressed by this encoding technique. The concept of this algorithm is removing continuous sequence of symbols using another shorten symbol which represent it. Practically what is does is to replace the number of occurrences with the numeric value and the symbol itself. For example, a text like ‘AAAACBBBBB’ is replace by ‘A04C01B05’. This method is very much efficient when there are only two symbols.

Huffman Coding

This is a little bit complicated than the previous one. First, the frequency of each appearing character is taken. Then the characters that have least frequencies being taken to give values ‘1’ for the higher one and ‘0’ for the lower one and there wise it is continued. Then the each available character is represented by a separated code included with 1s and 0s.

Lempel Ziv Encoding

This system does the encoding as two processes. They are indexing and compressing a string of symbols. When there is a set of characters, first step is to check whether an index have the minimum available character combination that appears. If available then put the index number in the string. If not, it will be added to the index. This compression technique is more effective as it has a two way compression method.

Lossless Compression File Formats

Audio

• Waveform audio format (WAV)
• Free Lossless Audio Codec  (FLAC)
• Apple Lossless Audio Codec (ALAC)
• ATRAC Advanced Lossless
• Audio Lossless Coding
• MPEG-4 SLS
• Direct Stream Transfer (DST)
• DTS-HD Master Audio
• Meridian Lossless Packing (MLP)
• Monkey’s Audio APE
• RealPlayer – RealAudio Lossless
• Shorten – SHN,TTA – True Audio Lossless
• WMA Lossless

Graphics

• Adaptive Binary Optimization (ABO)
• JPEG XR
• Progressive Graphics File (PGF)
• Portable Network Graphics (PNG)
• Tagged Image File Format (TIFF)

Video

• Animation codec
• CorePNG, Dirac
• FFV1
• JPEG 2000
• Huffyuv
• Lagarith
• MSU Lossless Video Codec
• SheerVideo

Lossy Compression Algorithms

It is the compression technique which will lose data in the original source while trying to keep the visible quality at the almost same amount. The compression ratio will be very high. Most probably the ratio will be a value near 10. It reduces non sensitive information to the human eyes and the compressed media will not be the media that was available before compression.

Advantages: Can reduce the file size more than in the Lossless Compression

Disadvantages: The original file cannot be taken after the decompression

Mathematical And Wavelet Transformation

In this process, images are converted to the mathematical functions. Discreet Cosine Transformation uses series of cosine functions to approximate image.  This technique is used with JPEG, MPEG1 and MPEG 2 formats. A wavelet function is used to approximate the image. This can be used with the JPEG 2000 and MPEG 4 formats.

JPEG Encoding

In this encoding, an image is represented by a two dimensional array of pixels. A Grayscale picture of 307*200 pixels is represented by 2,457,600 bits and a color picture is represented by 7,372,800 bits. Due to the number of calculations to be had in a JPEG format of a grayscale picture, it is divided into blocks of 8*8 pixels. The number of the units’ id equal to the number of mathematical equations of each picture. The whole idea of JPEG is to change the picture into a linear set of numbers that reveals the redundancies. In addition to those techniques, MPEG is also a Lossy Compression technique. It is a way to encode the moving images and audio included in it. It supports many video formats from mobile phone to HD TV.

H.261, H.263, H.264

H.261 is designed for video telephony and video conferencing applications. It was developed in 1988-1990. Data rate is a multiplication of a 64 kb/s. H.263 is a video coding technique for low bit rate communication. In addition, a 30% of bit saving can be done by this technique when it is compared to the MPEG-1. H.264 is a joint project of ITU-Ts Video Experts Group and the ISO/IEC MPEG group. All those three methods use different methods of reducing redundant data. There for the output differs from bit rate, quality and latency.

Future Trends Of Compression

cvements as they are being proposed. One of the available problems is the way how to handle the errors in a data loss of a data packet. Wavelet transform techniques will be a good further implementation for the next generation. Wavelet coding has two main advantages. The first one is that the video construction is achieved in a fully embedded style. Two processes of encoding and decoding can be stopped at a defined bit rate. The desired spatial resolution and the required frame rate can encode the stream. Vector quantization makes use of the correlation and the repeats between the pixels located near or between the frequency bands.

References

• (2002). MultimediaElements. In J. G. Shuman, Multimedia In Action. Vikas Publishing House Pvt Ltd.